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Pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan
Pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan atau pemerkosaan pasangan adalah tindakan hubungan seksual dengan pasangan tanpa persetujuan pasangan. Kurangnya persetujuan adalah elemen penting dan tidak perlu melibatkan kekerasan fisik. Perkosaan dalam pernikahan dianggap sebagai bentuk kekerasan dalam rumah tangga dan pelecehan seksual. Meskipun, secara historis, hubungan seksual dalam pernikahan dianggap sebagai hak pasangan, melakukan tindakan tanpa persetujuan pasangan sekarang secara luas diklasifikasikan sebagai pemerkosaan oleh banyak masyarakat di seluruh dunia, ditolak oleh konvensi internasional, dan semakin dikriminalisasi.
Sebagian besar negara mengkriminalisasi pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan sejak akhir abad ke-20 dan seterusnya—sangat sedikit sistem hukum yang mengizinkan penuntutan pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan sebelum tahun 1970-an. Kriminalisasi telah terjadi melalui berbagai cara, termasuk penghapusan pengecualian undang-undang dari definisi pemerkosaan, keputusan pengadilan, referensi legislatif eksplisit dalam undang-undang undang-undang yang mencegah penggunaan pernikahan sebagai pembelaan, atau pembuatan pelanggaran khusus pemerkosaan dalam perkawinan. Di banyak negara, masih belum jelas apakah pemerkosaan dalam perkawinan tercakup dalam undang-undang perkosaan biasa, tetapi di beberapa negara hubungan seksual non-konsensual yang melibatkan pemaksaan dapat dituntut di bawah undang-undang umum yang melarang kekerasan, seperti undang-undang penganiayaan.
Masalah dalam menuntut pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan
Kriminalisasi pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan tidak berarti bahwa hukum-hukum ini ditegakkan. Kurangnya kesadaran publik, serta keengganan atau penolakan langsung dari pihak berwenang untuk menuntut adalah hal biasa di seluruh dunia. Misalnya, di Irlandia, di mana pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan dibuat ilegal pada tahun 1990, pada tahun 2016 hanya ada dua orang yang dihukum karena pemerkosaan dalam pernikahan.
Bibliografi
- Bergen, Raquel Kennedy, "Marital Rape" on the site of the Applied Research Forum, National Electronic Network on Violence Against Women. Article dated March 1999. (Retrieved February 8, 2005.)
- Bergen, Raquel Kennedy. "An Overview of Marital Rape Research in the United States: Limitations and Implications for Cross-Cultural Research." Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Ed. Kersti Yllö, M.G. Torres. London: Oxford University Press, 2016. 17–26. Print.
- Bovarnik, Silvie. (2007). Universal Human Rights and Non-Western Normative Systems: A comparative Analysis of Violence against Women in Mexico and Pakistan. Review of International Studies, 33(1), 59–74.
- Connell, R.W. (1995). Masculinities (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
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Bennice, Jennifer A.; Patricia A. Resick (2003-07-01). "Marital Rape". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 4 (3): 228–246. doi:10.1177/1524838003004003003. PMID 14697124. Parameter
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yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan) - Easteal, P. Voices of the Survivors, Spinifex Press, North Melbourne, 1994.
- Finkelhor, F., Yllö, K. (1985). License to Rape: Sexual Abuse of Wives. New York: The Free Press
- Gan, K., Sex a conjugal right, on the site of Malaysiakini. Article dated September 2004. (Retrieved April 20, 2005. Original link is dead, substitute link is to the Internet Archive, and is dated October 12, 2004.)
- Kwiatkowski, Lynn. "Marital Sexual Violence, Structural Vulnerability, and Misplaced Responsibility in Northern Việt Nam." Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Ed. Kersti Yllö, M.G. Torres. London: Oxford University Press, 2016. 55–73. Print.
- Mandal, Saptarshi. (2014). The Impossibility of Marital Rape. Australian Feminist Studies, 29(81), 255–272.
- Menjívar, Cecilia. "Normalizing Suffering, Robadas, Coercive Power, and Marital Unions among Ladinas in Eastern Guatemala." Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Ed. Kersti Yllö, M.G. Torres. London: Oxford University Press, 2016. 75–85. Print.
- Schelong, K.M. (1994). Domestic Violence and the State: Response to and Rationales for Spousal Battering, Marital Rape and Stalking. Marquette Law Review, 78(1), 79-120.
- Smith, Daniel Jordan. "Modern Marriage, Masculinity, and Intimate Partner Violence in Nigeria." Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Ed. Kersti Yllö, M.G. Torres. London: Oxford University Press, 2016. 41–54. Print.
- Russell, Diana E.H., Rape in Marriage Macmillan Publishing Company, USA, 1990.
- The American Bar Association, Facts about Women and the Law Diarsipkan 2006-10-12 di Wayback Machine.. (Retrieved April 20, 2005.)
- Tjaden, Patricia, Thoennes., Nancy. (2000). Prevalence and consequences of male-to-female and female-to-male intimate partner violence as measured by the National Violence Against Women Survey. Violence Against Women, 6(2), 142–161.
- Tonnesson, Liv. (2014). When rape becomes politics: Negotiating Islamic law reform in Sudan. Women Studies International Forum, 44, 145–153.
- Torres, G. "Reconciling Cultural Difference in the Study of Marital Rape." Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Ed. Kersti Yllö, M.G. Torres. London: Oxford University Press, 2016. 7-16. Print.
Torres, G., Yllö, K. (2016). Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Torres, G., Yllö, K. (Ed.). London: Oxford University Press. Umberson, D., Anderson, K.L., Williams, K., Chen, M.D. (2003). Relationship dynamics, emotion state, and domestic violence: A stress and masculinities perspective. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(1), 233–247.
- General Assembly resolution 48/104 of 20, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, on the site of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, December 1993. (Retrieved April 20, 2005.)
- —, Marital Rape, on the site of Abuse Counseling and Treatment, Inc. (Retrieved February 8, 2005.)
- Dalal, Manish; Kumar, Raj (2020). Marital Rape: The Indian and Global Perspective (edisi ke-first). Shandilya Publication, Delhi. ISBN 978-9388147408.
- Hidden Hurt
Waterman, C.K., Dawson, L.T., Bologna, M.J. (1989). Sexual coercion in gay male and lesbian relationships: Predictors and implications for support services. The Journal of Sex Research, 26(1), 118–124. World Health Organization (WHO). (2005). Multi-country Study of Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Yllö, Kersti. "Prologue: Understanding Marital Rape in Global Context." Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage and Social Change in Global Context. Ed. Kersti Yllö, M.G. Torres. London: Oxford University Press, 2016. 1–6. Print.
Pranala luar
- For a brief overview view of partner rape, see STAR Library - Marital Rape
- Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights, Marital and Intimate Partner Sexual Assault, Stop Violence Against Women.
- Aphrodite Wounded: Partner Rape Facts, Survivor Support and Educational Resources
- Real Rape, Real Pain: Help for Women Sexually Assaulted by Male Partners Patricia L. Easteal, Louise McOrmond-Plummer
- [1] Raped by a Partner Research Report 2008 and [2] Partner Rape Educational DVD 2009 produced by Women's Health Goulburn North East.
- Analytical study of the results of the Fourth Round of Monitoring the Implementation of Recommendation Rec(2002)5 on the Protection of Women against Violence in Council of Europe member states (results for 2013)